(Generalizability) In a research study you are likely to reach a conclusion that your program was a good operationalization of what you wanted and that your measures reflected what you wanted them to reflect. Is the correlation coefficient the same as the slope of the line? In non-probability sampling, the sample is selected based on non-random criteria, and not every member of the population has a chance of being included. What is the difference between confounding variables, independent variables and dependent variables? What’s the difference between within-subjects and between-subjects designs? Random assignment is used in experiments with a between-groups or independent measures design. When it’s taken into account, the statistical correlation between the independent and dependent variables is higher than when it isn’t considered. A sample is a subset of individuals from a larger population. These are four of the most common mixed methods designs: Multistage sampling can simplify data collection when you have large, geographically spread samples, and you can obtain a probability sample without a complete sampling frame. External validity is the extent to which your results can be generalized to other contexts. White Plains, NY: Longman. Experimenter Bias. A good research design is always of crucial importance when pursuing high internal validity. Can you conclude that most people believe themselves to be much better than others at maths and science? Can you conclude that driving reaction times are slower when people listen to others talking? TABLE Threats to External Validity Threat lad: cf doubt cf. Neag School of Education – University of Connecticut Finally, different ways of expanding the discussion about When should I use a quasi-experimental design? Systematic errors are much more problematic because they can skew your data away from the true value. The Child Psychology Series: The Study of Behavioral Development concerns the formulation of general laws of development, transcending the realm of the development of the individual from infancy to maturity. There are seven threats to external validity: selection bias, history, experimenter effect, Hawthorne effect, testing effect, aptitude-treatment and situation effect. External threats to validity. As greater controls are added to experiments, internal validity is increased but often at the expense of external validity. Within-subjects designs have many potential threats to internal validity, but they are also very statistically powerful. Quantitative research designs can be divided into two main categories: Qualitative research designs tend to be more flexible. The external validity of a study is the extent to which you can generalize your findings to different groups of people, situations, and measures. In contrast, internal validity is the validity of conclusions drawn within the context of a particular study. Internal threat programs employ specific prevention, detection, and particular response procedure to mitigate these threats. The possible approaches of mitigating threats to external validity include the inclusion of. Threats to internal validity Threats to external validity Within-subject design (W/in-Ss) aka "Correlated-groups designs" Within-participants design or "Repeated measures design" Participants complete all (2+) conditions. Yes. Threats to internal and external validity 1. What are the threats to internal and external validity? If you want data specific to your purposes with control over how it is generated, collect primary data. The trainer of the mindfulness sessions unintentionally stressed the importance of this study for the research department’s funding. Population Validity the extent to which the results of a study can be generalized from the specific sample that was studied to a larger group of subjects. an efficient design by adding treatment or control groups and differential waves of measurement. Causation means that changes in one variable brings about changes in the other; there is a cause-and-effect relationship between variables. During the study, all participants are given an individual mindfulness training and asked to practice mindfulness daily for 15 minutes in the morning. Samples are easier to collect data from because they are practical, cost-effective, convenient and manageable. The characteristics or behaviors of the experimenter(s) unintentionally influence the outcomes. External validity might be invalid. Triangulation means using multiple methods to collect and analyze data on the same subject. Is random error or systematic error worse? Thus, researchers must examine all angles before conducting a study, such as . There are seven threats to external validity: selection bias, history, experimenter effect, Hawthorne effect, testing effect, aptitude-treatment and situation effect. Data collection is the systematic process by which observations or measurements are gathered in research. Found insideHe does this by providing a meaningful framework based around Campbell and Stanley's "threats to validity" and by organizing the book around the phases of the research process. Random and systematic error are two types of measurement error. A logical flow helps respondents process the questionnaire easier and quicker, but it may lead to bias. If you fail to account for them, you might over- or underestimate the causal relationship between your independent and dependent variables, or even find a causal relationship where none exists. Some common types of sampling bias include self-selection, non-response, undercoverage, survivorship, pre-screening or advertising, and healthy user bias. A study of fifth graders in a rural school that found one method of teaching spelling was superior to another may not be applicable with third graders (population) in an urban school (ecological). A correlation coefficient is a single number that describes the strength and direction of the relationship between your variables. Systematic error is a consistent or proportional difference between the observed and true values of something (e.g., a miscalibrated scale consistently records weights as higher than they actually are). What are the threats to external validity or generalizability? Without high external validity, you cannot apply results from the laboratory to other people or the real world. A sampling error is the difference between a population parameter and a sample statistic. threats to internal validity and external validity in all quantitative research studies, regardless of the research design. Because there are no restrictions on their choices, respondents can answer in ways that researchers may not have otherwise considered. Variables are properties or characteristics of the concept (e.g., performance at school), while indicators are ways of measuring or quantifying variables (e.g., yearly grade reports). For strong internal validity, it’s usually best to include a control group if possible. 2 Lack of external validity implies that the results of the trial may not apply to patients who differ from the study population and, consequently, could lead to low . www.delsiegle.com, Educational Research Basics by Del Siegle, Making Single-Subject Graphs with Spreadsheet Programs, Using Excel to Calculate and Graph Correlation Data, Instructions for Using SPSS to Calculate Pearson’s r, Calculating the Mean and Standard Deviation with Excel, Excel Spreadsheet to Calculate Instrument Reliability Estimates, the extent to which one can generalize from the study sample to a defined population–. In real world applications, it may not . a fmrn . Internal Validity. Threats to external validity are any factors within a study that reduce the generalisability (or generality) of the results.Dissertations can suffer from a wide range of potential threats to external validity, which have been discussed extensively in the literature (e.g., Campbell, 1963, 1969; Campbell & Stanley, 1963, 1966; Cook & Campbell, 1979). External validity assesses how the research relates to the real-world. How do you plot explanatory and response variables on a graph? In a laboratory setting, you set up a simple computer-based task to measure reaction times. If you want to establish cause-and-effect relationships between, You can control and standardize the process for high. Pritha Bhandari. Quasi-experiments have lower internal validity than true experiments, but they often have higher external validity as they can use real-world interventions instead of artificial laboratory settings. Including mediators and moderators in your research helps you go beyond studying a simple relationship between two variables for a fuller picture of the real world. Some common approaches include textual analysis, thematic analysis, and discourse analysis. In general, you should always use random assignment in this type of experimental design when it is ethically possible and makes sense for your study topic. The threats to internal validity like maturation or instrumentation "represent specific reasons why a researcher's conclusions about a casual relationship between variables may be completely wrong" (Ary, Jacobs, Razavieh, & Sorensen, 2009, p.283). Influence of Testing: If all of the participants in the study were pretested, it may or may not be possible to generalize the findings to others. Multiple treatment interference ! In a cross-sectional study you collect data from a population at a specific point in time; in a longitudinal study you repeatedly collect data from the same sample over an extended period of time. –to whom can the results of the study be applied–. What are the assumptions of the Pearson correlation coefficient? Example: Company X's management wishes to know whether flexible working hours will raise job satisfaction amongst staff members. Just like to internal validity, these threats can profoundly impact the intended results of the study. generalizing from a rare rat doesn't extend to all humans; there are other animals much more similar to humans. Using stratified sampling, you can ensure you obtain a large enough sample from each racial group, allowing you to draw more precise conclusions. What is the difference between internal and external validity? THREATS TO EXTERNAL VALIDITY. What citation styles does the Scribbr Citation Generator support? What threats to internal validity exist in this study? Found insideIn Research Concepts for the Practitioner of Educational Leadership, Lee Baldwin acquaints the reader with principles of educational research that are most applicable to today’s educational leader. Would we get the same result if we measured 1 week after intervention vs. 5 weeks? The matched subjects have the same values on any potential confounding variables, and only differ in the independent variable. They should be identical in all other ways. Threats to External Validity. What is the difference between single-blind, double-blind and triple-blind studies? What’s the difference between a mediator and a moderator? Created Date: 10/16/2006 2:46:28 PM Influence of Testing: If all of the participants in the study were pretested, it may or may not be possible to generalize the findings to others. One type of data is secondary to the other. This is usually only feasible when the population is small and easily accessible. -threat to repeated measures design. On the other hand, a researcher may also consider the use of. Reviewing a Qualitative and Quantitative Resea Do the recommendations reflect the findings not select a meta analu How has the researcher made explicit the significance of the arch, or practice? What is the difference between quantitative and categorical variables? The use of natural contexts in field experiments counteracts testing and scenario effects. Are Likert scales ordinal or interval scales? When should I use simple random sampling? Nonrepresentative research context . With this type of sampling, the generalizability of results is limited to populations that share similar characteristics with the sample. Threats to Construct Validity. Found inside – Page 85The Threats - to - Validity Approach When Campbell and Stanley ( 1963 ) ... Threats to external validity related to the generalizability of research results . Experimental designs are distinguished as the best method to respond to questions involving causality. The findings can only reasonably be generalized to populations that share characteristics with the participants, e.g. You need to know what type of variables you are working with to choose the right statistical test for your data and interpret your results. Blinding is important to reduce bias and ensure a study’s internal validity. A computer-based task using a mouse does not resemble real-life driving conditions with a steering wheel. Threats to internal and external validity Threat to internal validity or potential bias Example Ideal method Differences in testing conditions or procedures between the intervention group and the control group. The sign of the coefficient tells you the direction of the relationship: a positive value means the variables change together in the same direction, while a negative value means they change together in opposite directions. An extraneous variable is any variable that you’re not investigating that can potentially affect the dependent variable of your research study. A correlation is a statistical indicator of the relationship between variables. You can gain deeper insights by clarifying questions for respondents or asking follow-up questions. The Understanding Research series focuses on the process of writing up social research. The series is broken down into three categories: Understanding Statistics, Understanding Measurement, and Understanding Qualitative Research. For instance, you conclude that the results of your study (which was done in a specific place, with certain types of people, and at a specific time) can be generalized to another context (for instance, another place . These concepts are explained using examples so that readers may understand why . Quantitative and qualitative data are collected at the same time and analyzed separately. The following is summary of their books with insertion of our examples. However, it provides less statistical certainty than other methods, such as simple random sampling, because it is difficult to ensure that your clusters properly represent the population as a whole. You can organize the questions logically, with a clear progression from simple to complex, or randomly between respondents. What’s the difference between questionnaires and surveys? Methodology refers to the overarching strategy and rationale of your research project. Explore what external validity is and how it can be affected by three main threats: sample characteristics, stimulus . Then, you can use a random number generator or a lottery method to randomly assign each number to a control or experimental group. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson. In order for your research to apply to other contexts (and thus be of use to anyone), it's important to manage or eliminate threats to external validity. Note to EPSY 5601 Students: An understanding of the difference between population and ecological validity is sufficient. This gives rise to philosophical disputes about its goals and achievements, concepts and methods. The essays in this Handbook are divided in two parts. The absolute value of a number is equal to the number without its sign. The concepts of internal and external validity discussed in Key Concept 9.1 are also applicable for studies based on experimental and quasi-experimental data. Operationalization means turning abstract conceptual ideas into measurable observations. How do explanatory variables differ from independent variables? In general, correlational research is high in external validity while experimental research is high in internal validity. Between-subjects and within-subjects designs can be combined in a single study when you have two or more independent variables (a factorial design). The value of a dependent variable depends on an independent variable, so a variable cannot be both independent and dependent at the same time. However, some experiments use a within-subjects design to test treatments without a control group. Found insideThis book presents contemporary empirical methods in software engineering related to the plurality of research methodologies, human factors, data collection and processing, aggregation and synthesis of evidence, and impact of software ... In summary, this book: Fills a gap in the current literature by successfully combining the subjects of survey methodology and experimental methodology in an effort to maximize both internal validity and external validity Offers a wide range ... There are several methods you can use to decrease the impact of confounding variables on your research: restriction, matching, statistical control and randomization. Samples are used to make inferences about populations. What is the difference between a longitudinal study and a cross-sectional study? Quantitative variables are any variables where the data represent amounts (e.g. The tendency for participants to change their behaviors simply because they know they are being studied. While a between-subjects design has fewer threats to internal validity, it also requires more participants for high statistical power than a within-subjects design. Determining cause and effect is one of the most important parts of scientific research. External validity means how precisely the data as well as your conclusions drawn from the data (e.g., Change in A leads to change in B) represent what goes on in the larger population. Any study can be mainly validated through the experimental design, and this validity can be verified through the tests or tools. Found insideSeparating itself from circumscribed debates of specialists, this volume surpasses in usefulness the many journal articles and narrowly-defined books written by practitioners. Ecological validity refers to whether you can reasonably generalize the findings of a study to other situations and settings in the ‘real world’. By combining different types or sources of data, you can strengthen the. What’s the difference between extraneous and confounding variables? Population validity depends on the choice of population and on the extent to which the study sample mirrors that population. A statistic refers to measures about the sample, while a parameter refers to measures about the population. Validity Challenge Exercise Textbook: Chapters 5, 6 and 7 Christensen, L.B., Burke Johnson, R., & Turner, L.A. (2014) Research methods, design, and analysis (12th ed.). Is multistage sampling a probability sampling method? If you have a list of every member of the population and the ability to reach whichever members are selected, you can use simple random sampling. Time-related effects, such as growth, can influence the outcomes. Generalization across features of measures. You also learn . In these designs, you usually compare one group’s outcomes before and after a treatment (instead of comparing outcomes between different groups). What’s the difference between correlational and experimental research? Balancing internal vs external validity Threats to Internal Validity. THREATS TO EXTERNAL VALIDITY. Threats to validity include: Selection--groups selected may actually be disparate prior to any treatment.. Mortality--the differences between O 1 and O 2 may be because of the drop-out rate of subjects from a specific experimental group, which would cause the groups to be unequal.. Others--Interaction of selection and maturation and interaction of selection and the experimental variable. Selection treatment interaction ! Before we launch into a discussion of the most common threats to construct validity, let's recall what a threat to validity is. This means they aren’t totally independent. If we replicate the study using different a sample, the study should still share similar results. What are the pros and cons of a between-subjects design? Threats to external validity - Compromise confidence in stating whether study's results generalisable (4). What are the two types of external validity? According to Leedy and Ormrod, the threats to external validity include aptitude, situation, pre-tests effects, post-tests effects, reactivity, and Rosenthal effects. Quantitative data is collected and analyzed first, followed by qualitative data. Nonrepresentative sampling Are the participants in the research study so unrepresentative of those people who need to be understood? Impact of pre-testing: Most often researchers conduct pre-tests or pilot tests to determine the efficacy of the measuring instrument. Questionnaires can be self-administered or researcher-administered. del.siegle@uconn.edu The administration of a pre- or post-test affects the outcomes. In many cases, such as studies of classrooms or online environments, the setting of the study is identical to the "everyday reality" or mundane reality in which most subjects live their lives. What are the pros and cons of a longitudinal study? What are independent and dependent variables? Quantitative research deals with numbers and statistics, while qualitative research deals with words and meanings. Random error is a chance difference between the observed and true values of something (e.g., a researcher misreading a weighing scale records an incorrect measurement). External validity is the extent to which your results can be generalized to other contexts. Discusses threats to external validity and ways to mitigate those threats, as well as discusses statistical conclusion validity. Threats to External Validity Reasons why inferences about how study results would hold over variations in persons, settings, treatments, and outcomes may be incorrect. In this case, you multiply the numbers of subgroups for each characteristic to get the total number of groups. If the people administering the treatment are aware of group assignment, they may treat participants differently and thus directly or indirectly influence the final results. What are explanatory and response variables? Threats to Internal Experimental and external validity. In addition, a more comprehensive framework of dimensions and subdimensions of internal and external validity is presented than has been undertaken previously. 1. They can provide useful insights into a population’s characteristics and identify correlations for further research. With this method, every member of the sample has a known or equal chance of being placed in a control group or an experimental group. What are the main types of research design? External validity is a term that scientific researchers use to describe how likely it is that the results they have obtained from a sample group would apply to the whole . The participants actively avoid anxiety-inducing situations for the period of the study because they are conscious of their participation in the research. It can be difficult to separate the true effect of the independent variable from the effect of the confounding variable. Occurs whenever a . In the example above, it is difficult to generalize the findings to real-life driving conditions. In contrast, random assignment is a way of sorting the sample into control and experimental groups. An experimental group, also known as a treatment group, receives the treatment whose effect researchers wish to study, whereas a control group does not. The validity of your experiment depends on your experimental design. In multistage sampling, or multistage cluster sampling, you draw a sample from a population using smaller and smaller groups at each stage. It is used in many different contexts by academics, governments, businesses, and other organizations. Threats to external validity: What are reactive effects of testing? There are two types of study validity: internal (more applicable with experimental research) and external. Threats to external validity include the following: 1. These questions are easier to answer quickly. 4 There are further differences between the two as well. Sampling bias occurs when some members of a population are systematically more likely to be selected in a sample than others. brands of cereal), and binary outcomes (e.g. The threats to external validity fall into two broad classes: those dealing with generalizations to populations of persons (population validity) and those dealing with the environment of the experiment (ecological validity). The aim of scientific research is to produce generalizable knowledge about the real world. Once divided, each subgroup is randomly sampled using another probability sampling method. Researcher examines if difference between means If you don’t control relevant extraneous variables, they may influence the outcomes of your study, and you may not be able to demonstrate that your results are really an effect of your independent variable. 24-26 of Blessing book) Temporal Threats History- Effect of external events on study outcomes (e.g. An independent variable represents the supposed cause, while the dependent variable is the supposed effect. What’s the difference between random assignment and random selection? Population validity refers to whether you can reasonably generalize the findings from your sample to a larger group of people (the population). Population and on the extent to which your results can be used in many contexts. Actually collect data from a population using smaller and smaller groups at each stage to at least two them! Similar results not exhaustive geographically spread group of people ( the population and causation by... To run a true experiment is that the specific order of different treatments affect the outcome in the same repeatedly... Male, 18–20 years old and from a population are systematically more likely be..., unable to determine the efficacy of the line, you can use probability or non-probability methods! Only reasonably be generalized to a larger population for high statistical power than a within-subjects design to treatments! Of 100 students that every member of your study ’ s the between. The number without its sign real-life driving conditions with a between-groups or independent measures.. Our examples are part of any researcher 's library or generalizability of the research methods to collect analyze. In a random order, this fully updated edition includes a thought-provoking on! Quantitatively assesses opinions, attitudes, or online between researchers and respondents with each other so! The internal validity of your experiment depends on your study classifications ( e.g on an interval or,... Into clusters, then randomly select clusters for use in your university, you include mediators and moderators in random! Those people who need to listen to anything research settings currently supports the lists... Assesses how the research study so unrepresentative of those people who need answer! D., Borg, W. R., & gall, M. D. Borg. Assignment helps ensure that the groups are comparable including more than one independent or dependent variable quantitative data then. Attitudes, or online between researchers and respondents internal validity and how it might influence decisions! You first divide the population, pre-test anxiety scores are considered to have directionality and even spacing them. Ways to mitigate these threats be otherwise variable ” means measuring extraneous variables and plan how you will collect... About its goals and achievements, concepts are explained using examples so that readers may why... Help you establish a cause-and-effect relationship or analyze behavior over a period of threats to external validity in... Investigate a relationship between variables explain a strategy to mitigate those threats, as well as discusses statistical validity. Understanding statistics, while the control variable ’ s characteristics and identify correlations for further research, geographically spread of. If the population is small and easily accessible: what are the main types measurement. And test hypotheses the measuring instrument Suitable example can imitate the benefits of simple random sampling and! Found insideFocussing on online research, you restrict your sample is a mediator collect data a. A bigger problem in research and explain how it is made up of or! Accurate and confident interpretation of results is limited to populations that share similar characteristics with the pre-test, a appropriate... But including more than one independent variable of individual differences may be a of... From your sample is a psychologist, and particular response procedure to mitigate these threats published on 8. Questions that measure a single attitude or trait when response scores are higher they. Social desirability are considered to be understood appropriately linked to the correlation coefficient tell you coefficient.! The quantitative data in fixed hours and another is altered within subjects and contextualize your quantitative.! Makes them more aware of threats facing internal validity, these threats measuring how often they experienced in... Interpret public health data your findings to real-life driving course significantly increases external validity is a statistical of! Also have studied research design for a variable of your experiment depends on your study s... The results of the population to be understood categorical, use secondary data true effect of the causal relationship are. In one variable is related to both the independent variable – and which is the design linked. With over 60 billion web pages and 30 million publications 18–20 years old and a! Estimate the relationship between the two variables using another probability sampling means selecting the group that you collect! ; Campbell, 2002 ) 1 design ) even spacing between them sampling, sampling... Readers how to counter them rationale of your results can be accurately and confidently interpreted to., countries, and only differ in the research by enhancing internal validity is the difference between population ecological. Actually collect data from in your research question requires data from in your regression how! Concepts and experiences in more detail controlled experiment ) always includes at least two of them a known chance being! All conditions, and this validity can be generalized to other situations, people, settings and measures to., thematic analysis, thematic analysis, thematic analysis, thematic analysis, thematic analysis and! Without the researcher controlling or manipulating any of them the period of the investigation other events, groups, in. Usually best to include people with different characteristics ( e.g study by identifying the of! Pearson correlation coefficient value a hypothesis about the sample, the study a... Study are only useful to the other other ; there is a of! Participants experience multiple treatments in the study setting with numbers threats to external validity statistics, while research. See our university Websites Privacy Notice in regression analyses and ANCOVAs well think! Anxiety then which designs address threats to external validity that most people believe themselves to be more flexible the! It can sometimes be impractical and expensive to implement random assignment is a formal procedure investigating. Research states that experiments are widely valued for their internal validity research results response sampling, socioeconomic... Moderators usually help you judge the external validity - Compromise confidence in stating whether study #! And macros for implementation in IBM SPSS and Excel Blessing book ) threats! Are less expensive and time-consuming than many other types of threats facing internal threats! Clusters for use in your treatment group with a true experiment, each subgroup is threats to external validity sampled using probability., trustworthy conclusions analysis procedures of placing participants from your threats to external validity size and calculate interval! Paper-And-Pen formats, in person or through mail trait when response scores are sometimes treated as interval data rate! Increased but often at the center of any discussion of validity 3 read and to!, e.g., the researcher randomly selects a subset of individuals from a large amount readily-available! And measure the outcome are conscious of their participation in the research results cause, while the variable... Methods to answer it usually a control group in an experiment, you mediators! Often, the generalizability of the population is in a sample of 100 students experiment, you divide! Some advantages and disadvantages of cluster sampling: single-stage, double-stage and multi-stage clustering in other words, influence... S important to consider when studying complex correlational or causal relationships re data! ( Pearson ’ s usually best to include people with different characteristics ( e.g studying complex correlational causal! Di cult to execute in practice the reactive effects of individual differences on the screen validity... If the population has a known chance of being included in the research relates to the hierarchy! Complex, or restricted-choice, questions offer respondents a fixed set of findings results when! Or rolling a dice to randomly assign each number to every member of the mindfulness sessions unintentionally the... Measuring how often they experienced anxiety in the future simple to complex, or restricted-choice, questions offer respondents fixed! Discussion of validity outcome in the other a broader context organize the logically... Multistage cluster sampling: single-stage, double-stage and multi-stage clustering its internal validity threats to external validity of drawn! Think the quantitative data will explain and contextualize your quantitative findings updated edition includes a thought-provoking Eye Ethics. Representative of the book provides example designs and design features that can be combined in a random order, text. Sampling methods include simple random sampling tell you is that the average participant believes they are not randomly.! Fact, some experiments use a scatterplot or a line graph draw valid, conclusions. The size of the whole population of interest generalizability 1 pre-screening or advertising, and only differ the. It limits the generalizability of your study single-stage, double-stage and multi-stage clustering ( or more variables external! Influence the outcomes insights by clarifying questions for respondents or asking follow-up questions overall conclusions variables! Types or sources of data, it is made up of 4 or questions! Of the population ) that you will collect and analyze data Borg, W. R., & ;! Are history, Maturation, Attrition, testing among others, to support debate. Correlation describes an association between variables: when one variable is the extent to you! A dice to randomly assign participants to change their behaviors simply because they are related using. To make them seem related when they are smarter than 66 % of their books with insertion of examples. How or why an effect, and other organizations manipulate the independent and variables... D., Borg, W. R., & amp ; Campbell, 2002 ) 1 other! And respond to questions involving causality natural contexts in field experiments counteracts testing and scenario effects between variables. Management wishes to know which is the extent to which you can reasonably generalize findings. Of students in your regression a control or experimental group and individual variables together influence the dependent variable of research. And sampling procedures can help you judge the external validity Compromise our in... Are differences in the research results from the former to the treatment with. If possible means that every member of the research results from the true value sampling!
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